Autonomous mobility beyond formal cities

In the narrow lanes of informal settlements in African cities, autonomous mobility might emerge differently than anticipated in other parts of the world. Reflecting on emerging mobility services in Kampala and Nairobi, Ibrahim Mubiru proposes in a commentary published in the ‘World View’ section of Nature Cities how human-centered design can help informal settlements to prepare for the arrival of autonomous transport.

A growing body of research is challenging the assumption that autonomous mobility will only thrive in highly structured urban environments. Drawing on lived experiences across vastly different cities, our PhD student, Ibrahim Mubiru, argues in his commentary that got published in the ‘World View’ section of Nature Cities that informal settlements (often seen as unsuitable for advanced technologies) could instead shape alternative pathways for innovation.
Urban environments found in the Global North often align with the established six-level framework of autonomous driving, ranging from fully human-operated vehicles to complete automation. However, this structured vision contrasts sharply with cities like Kampala in Uganda or Nairobi in Kenya, where transport systems operate within narrow, unmarked roads and evolving spatial arrangements. Despite these infrastructural gaps, the Ibrahim Mubiru suggests that informal settings are not barriers to innovation but fertile ground for adaptive mobility solutions. In cities such as Kampala and Nairobi, motorcycle taxis, which are locally known as boda bodas, have become a cornerstone of urban transport. Accounting for an estimated 42% of motorised trips, these services demonstrate how mobility can emerge organically in response to immediate needs rather than formal planning. Boda bodas, for instance, have already begun integrating elements of modernisation. Many are now electric and connected to ride-hailing platforms, blending informal practices with digital systems. Companies like SafeBoda have expanded regionally, offering mobile payment options through widely used telecommunications services. This hybrid model illustrates how technology can embed itself into existing social and economic systems rather than replacing them.

In his commentary, Ibrahim Mubiru argues that autonomous mobility in such contexts is unlikely to follow the linear progression seen in wealthier countries. Instead, it may evolve incrementally, building on existing practices. One potential scenario is the development of semi-autonomous motorcycle taxis equipped with features like lane assistance or remote supervision. These systems would not require fully formalised infrastructure but could adapt to the realities of dense, flexible urban environments. However, such visions for mobility transition raises critical questions about implementation. Rather than imposing pre-designed technological solutions, the commentary emphasises the importance of human-centred design. Informal transport systems, often viewed as inefficient, are reframed as sources of “embedded mobility intelligence”, reflecting local knowledge, adaptability and resilience. To prepare for future technologies, Ibrahim Mubiru proposes a participatory approach. Communities and local transport operators should be actively involved in shaping mobility systems, ensuring that innovations reflect real-world behaviours and constraints. Practical steps could include collaboratively mapping streets, introducing simple addressing systems and installing durable signage to support both human navigation and machine sensing. Integrating locally generated data into digital mapping platforms would provide a foundation for autonomous technologies to function effectively. Importantly, the process should remain iterative, beginning with small-scale trials and incorporating continuous community feedback.

The findings from this commentary suggest that cities in sub-Saharan Africa and similar regions should not view autonomous mobility as a distant or irrelevant concept. Instead, by leveraging existing practices and prioritising inclusive design, they could pioneer new models of technological integration. Ultimately, the World View piece seeks to reframe informal settlements not as obstacles to innovation, but as active participants in shaping the future of urban mobility.

Mubiru, I. (2026): Autonomous mobility beyond formal cities. Nature Cities, volume and issue pending. DOI: 10.1038/s44284-026-00422-2